![]() ![]() ![]() Most participants showed clear behavioral signs of instrumental learning, even in the absence of an explicit avoidance strategy. When asked to freely choose between different action alternatives, participants spontaneously-without instruction or monetary reward-developed a preference for choices that maximized the probability of avoiding angry individuals (sitting away from them in a waiting room). Threatening facial expressions can evoke automatic stimulus-driven reactions, but whether their aversive motivational value suffices to drive instrumental active avoidance remains unclear. Adaptation to our social environment requires learning how to avoid potentially harmful situations, such as encounters with aggressive individuals. ![]()
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